The Doctrine of Grace in the Works of Early Christian Writers #
The legacy of early Christian thinkers had a primary influence on the formation of the Christian worldview paradigm. Under the influence of the spiritual experience of ancient Christian writers, the foundations were laid, and the platform for the cultural existence of civilization was formulated.
Grace—a concept repeatedly encountered in the Old Testament—is, in its essence, the most general and comprehensive expression. “Grace” in the Old Testament text primarily denotes God’s relationship with humanity. This can be seen in passages concerning Noah, Abraham, Lot, and Moses, where it is said that they found grace or mercy in the eyes of God.
It is important to note that in the Pentateuch, there are multiple instances where someone or something finds favor in the sight of God or man. To find or obtain favor, mercy, or grace are typical biblical expressions, each employing the ancient Hebrew word חן (ḥēn), where God’s initial benevolence leads to the granting of mercies or blessings. This suggests that grace carries not so much an abstract or aesthetic meaning as it does an active principle, manifesting in God’s beneficent acts.
The question of grace in the Hebrew Bible is, first and foremost, a question of God’s merciful actions toward His people, as well as how this manifested mercy was received in the lives and hearts of individuals. This mercy forms the foundation for the preservation of the entire history of the Jewish people, and it is built upon a series of covenants made between God and humanity.
The word “covenant” or “alliance” (ברית, bĕrît) was originally a legal term. Such alliances regulated relationships between tribes and kingdoms, establishing connections that did not arise from ordinary blood ties or social obligations. In the biblical world, the covenant was a prevalent form of relationship and was expressed in a solemn agreement between parties, accompanied by the mutual pronouncement of oaths.
A covenant made between individuals often signified a mutual agreement for cooperation or peace. Such a covenant could be an arrangement between private individuals, an agreement between a king and a private citizen, or a treaty between kings or states. There was also another type of covenant, which represented a solemn promise of a unilateral nature, where one party undertook to fulfill certain obligations.
Broadly speaking, the history of the Pentateuch is largely built upon the making of covenants between God and humanity. The blessing of God—His grace—is a gift freely given, not something obtained as a result of special merits, nor something that can be acquired by an individual or an entire people due to particular virtues or piety. When the Lord initiates a covenant, His choice of those with whom He establishes it is always based on His love and good favor. The Lord is always ready to bestow grace upon those He has chosen. Even in cases where they stray from the covenant, the subsequent divine punishments are so imbued with mercy that they ultimately lead to correction, prompting the wayward to return to Him.
For example, we see a similar situation in the passage concerning the election of the people of Israel. Here, grace is expressed through God’s action in choosing a specific people for Himself, in setting them apart from the other nations, and in bestowing upon them His law. This grace was given to the chosen people solely out of God’s love and will, and it was effective exclusively for the people of Israel, whose fate God directly influenced throughout biblical history.
The ancient translations of the Old Testament include the Septuagint and the Vulgate. In the Septuagint and the Vulgate, the Latin word gratia (favor, mercy, condescension, forgiveness) appears multiple times in various forms in the texts of Holy Scripture. In these ancient translations, as in the Hebrew and Greek texts, the term refers to the establishment of a covenant between God and man, as well as between one person and another.
In the Greek text of the Old Testament, just as in the Hebrew, grace is primarily connected with the concept of God’s merciful acts toward His people, as well as how this manifest mercy resonated in the lives and hearts of individuals. This mercy forms the foundation for the entire history of the people, and it is built upon a series of covenants established between God and humanity.
The first book that opens the Word of God states that humanity had become corrupt, and that evil continually filled the hearts of men. The fall in the Garden of Eden led humankind to such a degree of moral decay that people engaged in actions that were evil in the eyes of God. Yet amid this depraved generation, one man stood apart from the rest. This man was Noah.
In the midst of a wicked generation, Noah walked with God and held a righteous standing before Him. It is also written that Noah was blameless. In Hebrew, the word for “blameless” means whole, complete, or innocent. Noah walked in integrity and innocence before the Lord. He was as a light in the darkness.
The most common definition of grace is “unearned, undeserved mercy.” But is this what we see in Noah? The words unearned and undeserved suggest that human deeds count for nothing when grace is present. Were Noah’s deeds truly accounted as nothing when he received grace?
We cannot claim to know exactly how he “earned” the Lord’s grace, but his three actions—righteousness, blamelessness, and walking with God—influenced God’s decision to bestow grace upon him. The only person in the text who received grace was the one to whom these three attributes were ascribed. Thus, this implies the following: to receive God’s gift of grace, each of us must be righteous, blameless, and walk with God.
For believers, the story of Noah repeatedly points to God. Because of the righteousness of one man, Noah, his entire family received grace at the very place where judgment was being carried out. Through God, we, as members of His family, likewise receive grace at the very place where judgment takes place. “For the grace of God [through Jesus] has appeared, bringing salvation to all men” (Titus 2:11).
It should be noted that in the Old Testament, there is one prophetic passage where the term “grace” is directly linked to the concept of “Spirit”—the “Spirit of grace”—which resembles the unique New Testament expression. “And I will pour out on the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem the Spirit of grace and supplication; and they shall look upon Him whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn for Him, as one mourns for an only son, and shall be in bitterness for Him, as one that is in bitterness for a firstborn” (Zechariah 12:10). The inner transformation of the inhabitants of Jerusalem when the “Spirit of grace” is poured out upon them recalls Christ’s words about what would happen to His disciples and followers with the descent of the Comforter, the Holy Spirit.
The New Testament texts indicate that through grace, a person is not merely justified (as in the Old Testament) but is saved. For a Christian, the reward is not earthly praise or material blessings but eternal life, which is the primary gift of God’s grace. In the New Testament, grace is defined as spiritual renewal for eternal life in the Kingdom of Heaven.
Let us now examine how the concept of “grace” was reconstructed in the writings of early Christian authors. In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, the term “grace” is frequently used. Their understanding of the term does not differ significantly from that of the apostles. In their writings, grace is attributed to both God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.
In the writings of St. Clement of Rome, we read: “Grace and peace from Almighty God through Jesus Christ be multiplied unto you”. St. Ignatius the God-bearer, in his often lengthy salutations—dedicated to describing the divine plan of salvation through the will of God the Father and the crucifixion of the Son of God, as well as to characterizing various churches—extends greetings on behalf of God the Father, associating Him with the concept of grace. In the Epistle of Polycarp, we find the greeting: “Mercy and peace from God Almighty and from our Lord Jesus Christ, our Savior, be multiplied unto you”.
Recognizing, together with the Holy Scriptures, that God the Father is the primary source of all grace, mercy, and spiritual gifts, the Apostolic Fathers use the word “grace” as a synonym for God the Father. For example, St. Ignatius the God-bearer praises the deacon Sotiones, saying that he “obeys the bishop as the grace of God”. The Apostolic Fathers also saw the manifestation of God’s grace in the Old Testament, understanding it at times as the strengthening power of God, at times as the illumination of the mind, and at other times as the salvation that was to be revealed in Christ.
In the works of St. Cyprian of Carthage, there is a noticeable tendency to distinguish and analyze the various aspects that comprise the concept of grace, as well as a certain effort to narrow its scope.
However, this phenomenon is observed only in cases where St. Cyprian is engaged in disputes concerning the validity of baptism administered by heretics and schismatics, as well as the reception of the lapsed back into church communion. In other instances, regarding the scope of the concept of grace, he is largely in agreement with his predecessors. He speaks of grace in the Old Testament, of the grace given to the Jews, which was later taken from them and passed on to Christians, and of the grace present in figures of the Old Testament such as Solomon, Saul, and others.
In Clement of Alexandria, in the form of hints, allusions, and deliberate omissions, we find, in essence, the same remarkable system of views on the cooperative action of God’s grace—grace as the work of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—alongside human efforts, beginning from the first moment of salvation (catechesis). This system was later developed, expressed more clearly, with greater consistency and less allegory, by his renowned disciple Origen, who thus serves as the best and most reliable commentator on the often difficult writings of his teacher. In Clement’s view, grace is primarily the grace of the Father and the Son, and only thereafter of the Holy Spirit. He also acknowledges grace in the Old Testament, identifying it with the Law of Moses, though he describes this “ancient grace” as temporary, granted by the Word through Moses.
In the works of the great Christian teacher Origen, whose numerous writings contain abundant material for a theological and sociological understanding of grace, there are many commonalities with his predecessors, particularly his teacher Clement. At the same time, Origen introduces something new in terms of how the doctrine of grace is formulated, providing a fuller and clearer exposition of the activity of the Third Person of the Holy Trinity—the Holy Spirit—and taking a significant step toward narrowing the definition of grace. However, it is not easy to attain complete clarity regarding Origen’s true views on this subject, despite the fact that his works do not exhibit the deliberate obscurity characteristic of his teacher’s writings. Like his predecessors, Origen attributed grace to the action of God the Father, but he also included the operation of the Holy Spirit, emphasizing persistently that grace, understood as the divine power assisting man in attaining salvation, is primarily the power or activity of the Holy Spirit.
From the catechist of the third century, we now turn to the catechist of the fourth century. Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, in his renowned Catechetical and Mystagogical Lectures, left us a valuable monument dedicated not only to the exposition of the content of the Creed but also to the elucidation of the doctrine of God’s grace.
Adopting a general perspective on the manifestation of the Triune God in the world and recognizing the operation of grace in the Old Testament, Saint Cyril attributes it specifically to the Holy Spirit, though to a lesser extent than in the New Testament. For instance, the Holy Spirit descended upon the seventy elders in the time of Moses (Numbers 11:25). “It was not the Spirit that was divided (at that time), but rather grace was distributed according to the capacity and strength of those who received it.” In this event and in Moses’ words (verses 28–29), the holy father sees a foreshadowing of “the abundant outpouring of grace” in the New Testament—a grace that in the Old Testament was given only in part. Thus, grace, and specifically “the grace of the Holy Spirit,” existed in the Old Testament, though in a lesser measure than in the New. The grace of the Holy Spirit in the Old Testament was closely connected with the same ancient, fruitful vine in the prophets, from which the apostles in the New Testament “drank.” That is, the Spirit in the Old Testament both proclaimed and revealed the Word of the Son, just as in the New Testament, He descended to “make Christ known.” The Spirit spoke through the Old Testament prophets on behalf of Christ Himself.
The works of Saint Basil the Great are particularly remarkable for their excellent exposition of the sanctifying and perfecting action of the Holy Spirit and the doctrine of grace as the power and operation of the Holy Spirit.
All the key principles of Saint Basil regarding the doctrine of God as the Sanctifier—both of creation in general and of humanity in particular—are also found in the writings of Saint Gregory the Theologian. However, in Gregory’s works, these principles appear in a fully developed form, requiring no further elaboration or justification, likely due to what had already been accomplished by Saint Athanasius and especially by Saint Basil the Great. Nevertheless, Saint Gregory provides many valuable details that clarify both the operation of divine grace and the relationship between divine and human participation in the work of salvation. He also presents a clearer and more detailed depiction of this process than Saint Basil, making his writings a fitting complement to those of his great friend. Incidentally, Saint Gregory himself acknowledged the considerable influence that Saint Basil had on him, particularly in the development of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit.
In the exposition of the doctrine of divine grace, Saint Gregory of Nyssa must be assigned one of the most distinguished places. However, this is not in relation to the theological aspect of the doctrine—that is, not in terms of clarifying the teaching on the Holy Trinity as the Source, Giver, and Dispenser of grace, since, after Saint Basil the Great, nothing further needed to be added in this regard, and Gregory of Nyssa merely followed in the footsteps of his great brother, reiterating what had already been stated. Nor is it in relation to the explanation of the initial moments of grace’s operation upon man, which had been thoroughly analyzed by Saint Cyril of Jerusalem and Saint Gregory the Theologian. Rather, grace is common to both the Old and New Covenants and is the work of the entire Holy Trinity, encompassing the full range of divine beneficence. The grace bestowed upon us by God is revealed repeatedly in the Psalms of David, which depict both the afflictions into which we have fallen and the divine aid granted to us in the pursuit of righteousness.
Saint Macarius of Egypt went even further than Saint Gregory of Nyssa in explaining the manifestation of divine grace. He addresses the question of how it is possible for grace and sin to coexist within the same soul. Saint Macarius points, in part, to the complexity and depth of the soul, in part to the inviolability of human free will, and in part to the omnipresence of God, the boundlessness of the divine nature, and its inability to be defiled by sin. “The soul has many members and great depth; when sin enters it, it takes possession of all its members and the pastures of the heart. Later, when a person seeks grace, it comes to him and takes hold of approximately two members of the soul. The inexperienced person, comforted by grace, thinks that the grace which has come has taken possession of all parts of the soul and that sin has been eradicated. But in reality, the greater part of the soul is still dominated by sin, and only a small part is under grace”. Grace is primarily understood as the power of God, particularly as the power of the Holy Spirit and of the Lord, who is inseparable from Him.
Saint John Chrysostom, with his extraordinary eloquence and spiritual depth, expounds upon the concept of grace. His works are filled with passages where the word “grace” is used in a broad sense. In addition to the reasons common to all the early Fathers, this broad application of the term was particularly influenced by Chrysostom’s extensive exegetical work on both the Old and New Testament scriptures.
One such passage states: “Even what pertains to the Law (of Moses) was also the work of grace, as was our very existence, which was brought forth from non-existence. Since we had not performed any prior good deeds, how could we have received such a reward—when we did not yet exist? But this was so because in all things, God’s beneficence precedes (Θεοῦ παντάχοϑεν τῆς εὐεργεσίας ϰατάρχοντος). Not only was our being brought from non-being an act of grace, but also the immediate teaching given to us after our creation, instructing us in what we should and should not do, the implantation of this law in our very nature, the endowment of an incorruptible tribunal of conscience within us—all of this was the work of the greatest grace and ineffable love for mankind. It was also an act of grace that after the corruption of this law, it was restored through the written Law”—referring to the Law of Moses, which, according to Saint John, is what is meant by the phrase “grace for grace” (ὰντίχάριτος).
Thus, according to the teaching of the early Christian writers and the Church Fathers, divine grace is bestowed within the Church. The renewal of the person is accomplished by the power of God’s grace. Without divine grace, it is impossible to overcome sin and passions. The grace of God is the foundation for a person’s attainment of salvation in Christ.
by Roman Atorin