Orthodoxy in 17th-Century Rus’: A Brief Historical and Cultural Overview #
By Roman Atorin
The origins of the Christian faith in Rus’ should be sought long before the enlightening mission of the holy equal-to-the-apostles Prince Vladimir. Christian tradition holds that the very hills upon which the magnificent city of Kiev would later rise were visited by the holy apostle Andrew the First-Called when he preached the Resurrection of Christ while traveling up the Dnieper River.
Some Byzantine chronicles from the fifth century already mention a “Scythian Diocese.” The holy equal-to-the-apostles Cyril (827–869) and Methodius (815–885), during their missionary work among the Slavic tribes, also made a significant spiritual contribution to the spread of Christianity and created all the necessary conditions for Orthodoxy to become the culture-forming religion of our ancestors. It could not have been otherwise, for in creating a new alphabet based on Greek, the holy brothers used Byzantine liturgical books as teaching materials in the literacy instruction of the Slavs. There is every reason to believe that, along with teaching literacy, the saintly brothers deliberately and purposefully, with the most heartfelt and purest intentions, brought the light of the Orthodox Faith to our ancestors.
An indirect argument in favor of the existence of Christianity in Rus’ before its official adoption is the missionary activity of monks exiled in the eighth century from the Byzantine Empire to the Crimean Peninsula. When power in Constantinople was seized by the heretical iconoclasts, the most zealous defenders of holy icons—mainly monks—were sent into exile, primarily to Crimea. It is not unlikely that some of them traveled further inland, spreading the Christian faith.
The holy equal-to-the-apostles Princess Olga (c. 920–969) was the first ruler of the ancient Rus’ state to receive Holy Baptism. She sought to persuade her son, Prince Sviatoslav, to embrace Christianity, but he steadfastly refused and remained a pagan until the end of his life.
The Slavic tribes, before their acquaintance with Orthodox Christianity and even more so before the historic Baptism of Rus’, followed a pagan, “folk” religion. This religion was based on the worship of natural forces and visible idols—wooden or stone carvings representing some pagan deity “responsible” for a particular natural phenomenon. Paganism often included cruel and, at times, far from virtuous customs. For instance, when a nobleman died, his wife and children might be slain and buried alongside the head of the clan in the same burial mound. There were cases where human sacrifices were made to false gods. However, this was not the most significant issue. Paganism, by its nature, is ahistorical and spontaneous—a purely emotional, carnal, and primitive religious phenomenon, at times even coarse and barbaric. It was not the kind of force that could unite the numerous people living across the vast territories of that era into a single whole.
The holy equal-to-the-apostles Prince Vladimir (947–1015) attempted to reform the existing religion before converting to Christianity. He sought to systematize the pagan idols that governed various aspects of human life. However, this did not yield any substantial results in strengthening the spiritual and political unity of the Slavic people. A truly transformative power was needed. By divine providence, Christianity proved to be this great spiritual force—enlightening human souls, calling people to sacrificial love, creation, humility, and morality. Christianity reached us culturally from the Bulgarian lands and canonically from Byzantium.
A tradition holds that before the events of 988, Prince Vladimir was searching for a faith that would be most suitable for the Slavs. His preference was ultimately given to Eastern Christianity, whose wondrous and almost otherworldly order of worship deeply impressed his envoys, and later, Vladimir himself. According to legend, before his own baptism in the city of Korsun (Chersonesus Taurica), Vladimir was struck with blindness, and upon emerging from the baptismal font, as he himself testified, he “beheld the true God.” The pious prince set a personal example for his people in repentance and the transformation of his own soul. After his baptism, he abandoned all pagan customs and the corresponding way of life.
The Baptism of Rus’ in 988 marked a vast transformation and even the eradication of nearly all that had existed before Christianity—pagan traditions, customs, and morals—that had led the Slavs toward further spiritual decay. The September mass baptism of people in the Dnieper River (Kiev) and the Volkhov River (Novgorod) symbolized Prince Vladimir’s intention to transform the nation and make it a stronghold of Orthodoxy.
It would be incorrect to say that with the adoption of Christianity, paganism immediately ceased to exist in Rus’. There were even clashes and internal strife between Christians and pagans, but gradually, paganism faded from the consciousness of the Slavs, and the people of ancient Rus’ embarked on an extraordinary journey to build what their descendants would later call “Holy Rus’.”
The significance and positive impact of Christianity’s adoption by Rus’ are difficult to overestimate. The spiritual enlightenment of the people, the eradication of vices and immorality, the discovery of faith in the living God—the Holy Trinity—the deepening of spiritual life, love for one’s neighbor, the struggle against passions, and salvation through the redemptive mission of our Lord Jesus Christ—these are perhaps the greatest and most fundamental values brought to the Slavs through the spread and establishment of Christianity. However, no less important was the cultural contribution resulting from the Baptism of Rus'.
Russian cities were transformed with the development of wooden, and later stone, ecclesiastical architecture. Orthodox churches and monasteries were erected everywhere, becoming beacons of literacy and faith. Among the most well-known are the Church of the Intercession of the Theotokos on the Nerl, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir, the St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior in Novgorod, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Dormition Cathedral in Zvenigorod, the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael in Mikulin Gorodishche, the cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, and many other churches and monastic architectural complexes built across various regions of our homeland.
The Orthodox saints of ancient Rus’ serve as worthy examples of living evangelical virtues, the preaching of spirituality and literacy, and an unwavering readiness to stand for the faith until the end.
With the adoption, spread, and assimilation of Christianity among the Slavs, a unique phenomenon of spiritual culture emerged—religious literature. The writing system inherited from the holy equal-to-the-apostles Cyril and Methodius facilitated the spread of literacy throughout Rus'.
The language and literature of every nation embody its highest spiritual qualities: piety, morality, love, wisdom, and attitudes toward the world and humanity. Familiarity with the literary monuments of ancient Rus’ contributes to a person’s spiritual development, self-discipline, and religiosity. Old Russian literature serves as a source of Christian piety, a human example of cultivating Christian virtues such as humility and compassion, watchful prayer, and the willingness to make sacrifices for the faith, as well as respect for elders and the preservation of historical memory and traditions.
The adoption of Christianity and its literary culture created favorable conditions for the emergence of the literary masterpieces of Ancient Rus’, which contributed immensely to the development of world literature.
Writing as such existed in Rus’ before Christianity, but it was with the adoption of the Christian faith that its development took on a broad, global scope.
Gradually, writing transformed into a category of Russian spiritual culture known as “Book Culture” (Книжность). Distinguished by its profound ideological content, rich artistic depth, and, at the same time, simplicity and accessibility, Old Russian literature conveyed the God-revealed Truths to the hearts and minds of a people who had only recently embraced Christianity.
One of the first known Old Russian writers was the monk Nestor the Chronicler (1056–1114) of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. His epochal work, The Tale of Bygone Years (Повесть временных лет), has reached us, in which the Pechersk monk raises complex historical and philosophical questions related to the origins of our homeland and the ancient Russian state.
One cannot overlook The Sermon on Law and Grace (Слово о законе и благодати) by Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev and All Rus’. This literary-theological treatise conveys to the reader the Christian doctrine that God’s grace is not limited to any one particular nation but is offered to all of humanity.
The Instruction (Поучение), written by Prince Vladimir Monomakh, represents an organic synthesis of personal morality and the sense of national unity as an essential condition for building a God-protected state.
Doctrinal and polemical works were authored by such figures as Maxim the Greek, Nil Sorsky, Joseph Volotsky, and others.
For the Russian people, the book—its image and purpose—was always perceived as something otherworldly. A book, especially a handwritten one, was treated with deep reverence, alongside the Cross and icons, and was kept in a place of honor, such as the red (beautiful) corner of a home or another special location. One would touch a book only after washing one’s hands and offering a prayer. This attitude, preserved in the Old Believer tradition, underscores the sacred significance of divinely inspired books.
Alongside literary culture, the pre-schism Russian Church flourished in artistic culture, which found its expression in the phenomenon of Old Russian iconography.
The icon is a window into the spiritual world, an image that helps a praying Christian lift his mind and heart toward the Divine Archetype. An icon is not merely a painting meant to evoke emotion, nor is it an object of material worship. For an Orthodox Christian, an icon is part of Divine Revelation. Through the holy icon, God Himself unveils the mystery of the Heavenly Kingdom, which remains hidden from mankind but is prepared for all who believe in the redemptive mission of our Lord Jesus Christ. Theology is not merely an intellectual exercise in discussing Christian dogma. The Spirit blows where it wills—and for the salvation of mankind, the Spirit also manifests in church art, whose highest expression is the icon. The icon has always been a silent preacher of Christianity.
In the pre-schism Russian Church, theology in colors—as iconography is often called—reached great heights. The monk-iconographer Alypius and Metropolitan Peter of Moscow naturally absorbed the influence of Byzantine iconography, which was characterized by its strict, majestic, and transcendent style. One of the most famous images is the “Savior with the Fiery Eye” (Спас Ярое Око), painted by Metropolitan Peter.
The traditions of Byzantine iconography were also embodied in the spiritual works of the renowned Theophanes the Greek (1340–1410). The faces that emerged from his brush seem to consume all sinfulness in man, burning away every trace of passion—this is vividly evident in Theophanes’ icons, known for their dark, austere, almost fearsome expressions.
The icons of St. Andrei Rublev (1360 – January 29, 1430) also bear within them the meaning of the Uncreated Light-Fire. However, unlike Theophanes, this Fire is no longer fearsome, no longer consuming sin. In Andrei Rublev’s icon theology, the nature of the Uncreated Light-Fire is not one of destruction but of transfiguration through repentance. It is the nature of the Gospel Light that, according to Christ’s words, is the light of the world. The Savior of Rublev is no longer the strict and righteous Judge but the all-forgiving, loving Father, the Almighty Lord, who does not remember human sins but lovingly receives His lost children. According to the theological meaning of Rublev’s icons, human nature is no longer merely striving toward salvation, as depicted in Theophanes’ works, but already symbolizes the highest spiritual perfection and heavenly existence.
It is well known that the work of Andrei Rublev was influenced by one of the greatest Russian saints, Sergius of Radonezh. Sergius played a key role in developing the Byzantine tradition of hesychasm in Rus’, a contemplative theological tradition whose doctrinal meaning is rooted in the idea of the Transfiguration of the Lord on Mount Tabor.
The iconographer Dionisiy (c. 1440–1502) largely continued the religious and artistic tradition of Andrei Rublev, enriching it with refined color techniques, lightness, and expressiveness.
The Old Believers to this day faithfully uphold the canons of Old Russian iconography. The centuries-old traditions of Orthodox iconography have been carefully preserved by the ancient Orthodox Christians, despite all persecutions and hardships.
The heads of the Russian Church were metropolitans appointed from Byzantium to the Kiev (and later Moscow) see. From 988 to 992, the first primatial seat in Kiev was held by Metropolitan Michael, mentioned in the Life of Saint Prince Vladimir. After Michael, Leontiy was appointed, serving from 992 to 1008.
During the reign of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise (978 – February 20, 1054), Rus’ experienced an unprecedented civilizational rise. Churches were built everywhere, schools and libraries flourished, and the Church waged a decisive struggle against the remnants of the pagan past. The cultural and educational flourishing of Kievan Rus’ was closely tied to the activities of Metropolitan Hilarion, a talented spiritual writer. Notably, Hilarion (1051–1054) was the first metropolitan of Kiev to be of Russian origin and was appointed to the see without the canonical approval of Constantinople. With this, Yaroslav the Wise attempted to secure canonical independence for the Russian Church. However, after his death, the previous practice of appointing metropolitans from Byzantium was reinstated.
Another significant figure in the young and developing Russian Church was Metropolitan Clement Smolyatich (1147–1155), a church writer, theologian, and prominent medieval Russian thinker. His work Epistle of Clement, Metropolitan of Rus’, to Presbyter Thomas, Interpreted by Athanasius the Monk has survived to this day. In this text, following the theological tradition of the Alexandrian school, Clement argues for the possibility of an allegorical and symbolic interpretation of the sacred texts rather than a strictly literal one.
Metropolitan Peter of Moscow (1308 – December 21, 1326) was the first metropolitan to move his residence to Moscow. He was also a noted iconographer, and his painting The Savior with the Fiery Eye is considered a masterpiece of religious art of global significance. Following Peter’s advice, Prince Ivan Kalita laid the foundation for the stone Church of the Dormition of the Most Holy God-bearer in the Moscow Kremlin in 1326—now the renowned Dormition Cathedral. Metropolitan Peter has been glorified as a saint of the Russian Church.
Metropolitan Alexei of Moscow (1354 – February 12, 1378) possessed exceptional intelligence, remarkable abilities, and outstanding administrative talent. He was the de facto ruler of the Grand Principality of Moscow under three princes, consistently pursuing a policy of strengthening and elevating Moscow. With his remarkable diplomatic skills, he established favorable relations with the Golden Horde and earned a reputation as a wise and respected leader among the people.
Metropolitan Kyprian of Kiev and All Rus’ (1389–1406) was an Orthodox writer, a polyglot, and a skilled copyist of books.
A remarkable and somewhat contradictory figure, he combined humility with a degree of stubbornness. He deliberately pursued a policy of separation and was the only metropolitan of Vladimir-Moscow who refused to establish direct diplomatic relations with the Golden Horde.
The rule of Metropolitan Kyprian is significant for the grand liturgical reform that took place in the Russian Church during his time. The essence of this reform was the transition from the more “worldly” Studite Rule to the Jerusalem Typikon, which was more monastic in spirit. From then on, Orthodox worship in Rus’ became more prolonged, austere, and reverent.
In its nature, the church reform of Metropolitan Cyprian was far more comprehensive than the later changes introduced during the Nikonian-Alexeyev era. However, under Cyprian, the modification of the Typikon was conducted carefully, gradually, and critically. The external forms of worship continued to align with the spirit of Apostolic Tradition and the patristic religious experience. There was no heresy. It was during Metropolitan Cyprian’s tenure that the liturgical practice of the Russian Church became nearly identical to what is observed today in the churches of the Russian Orthodox Old-Ritualist Church.
It is worth noting that in Rus’, the Church and its clergy always assisted the authorities and the people in difficult and troubled times. During the Mongol invasion and the subsequent three-hundred-year yoke, the Church sought to mitigate the cruelty of the Mongol-Tatars, helping to reduce raids and ensure the peaceful collection of tribute. Remarkably, during the yoke, the Church itself suffered less persecution, as Mongol-Tatar beliefs dictated respect for the religions of the peoples they conquered. Throughout the Mongol period in Rus’, numerous pious warriors were glorified as saints. Among them were the holy right-believing princes: Alexander Nevsky (May 13, 1221 – November 14, 1263), who repelled German and Swedish crusaders; Dmitry Donskoy (October 12, 1350 – May 19, 1389), the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo; and Michael of Tver (1271 – November 22, 1318), who was martyred in the Horde.
Patriarch Germogen of Moscow and All Rus’ (July 3, 1606 – February 17, 1612) openly opposed Polish domination. He reluctantly agreed to recognize the Polish prince Vładysłav Sigismundovich as the Russian tsar but only on the condition that he embraced Orthodoxy. Another of his key demands was the complete withdrawal of Polish troops from the Moscow state. When this did not happen, the patriarch openly called upon the Russian people to form a militia and fight against the Western occupiers. Patriarchal letters were sent to every corner of Rus’, rallying the people to resist. Imprisoned by the Poles and threatened with execution, Germogen refused to order the people to surrender. He died of starvation in prison, not living to see the liberation of Moscow.
Another significant church figure of the Time of Troubles was Patriarch Philaret Romanov (June 24, 1619 – October 1, 1633), the father of the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov (July 22, 1596 – July 23, 1645).
A prominent public figure, a talented administrator, politician, canonist, and theologian, Patriarch Philaret Romanov was the de facto ruler of the state during the reign of his young and inexperienced son, Tsar Mikhail Fyodorovich. Committed to a consistent national policy and the defense of the state’s independence, he was arrested by the Poles while serving as Metropolitan of Rostov and spent eight years in captivity. After his release, he was triumphantly received in Moscow by his son, the tsar.
In 1619, Metropolitan Philaret Romanov was elevated to the rank of Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'.
It was under Patriarch Philaret that the Great Potrebnik (Большой Потребник) was compiled, emphasizing the inadmissibility of affusion baptism, which was deemed a heretical practice. The text also reaffirmed the necessity of performing triple immersion baptism for Catholics converting to Orthodoxy, as only triple immersion was recognized by the Church as valid, in accordance with the 50th Apostolic Canon.
The Old Russian Church is rightly considered a stronghold of monastic life. Monasteries in Rus’ emerged almost immediately after the Baptism of Rus’, fulfilling not only the role of monastic communities and centers of communal subsistence but also serving as vital religious and cultural institutions.
An Old Russian monastery was a full-fledged spiritual center with a rich liturgical life and established traditions, a beacon of culture, education, and spiritual formation. The image of the Russian monk was always associated with an otherworldly, angelic way of life. Beyond their spiritual purpose, monasteries played an important economic role in the state. The first cenobitic monastery in Rus’ is considered to be the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, founded in the early 11th century by the monk Anthony of Lyubech, who was later glorified as a saint (983–1073). His disciple, Theodosius of the Kiev Caves (1029 – May 3, 1074), a monk from the ancient city of Kursk, became a worthy successor to his spiritual mentor’s pious works.
However, the highest flourishing of monasticism and spiritual life in Rus’ came during the time of Saint Sergius of Radonezh (May 1322 – September 25, 1392). One of the greatest Russian ascetics and one of the most venerated saints of the homeland, he continued the tradition of hesychasm and the practice of the prayer of the heart. He was also a talented diplomat and organizer. Sent by God, as it were, to comfort and strengthen the Russian people in a time of internal strife and the brutal oppression of the Mongol tax collectors, he played a crucial role in the spiritual and political consolidation of the nation.
The monastery founded by Sergius, the Holy Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra, gained worldwide renown. Under his influence, the legendary iconographer Andrei Rublev created his masterpieces. It was Sergius who blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, expressing confidence in victory—a battle that had enormous ideological significance for the Russian state. According to tradition, during the battle, Sergius prayed for the fallen warriors by name.
The glorification of Sergius in the first generation after his repose is an unprecedented case in the history of Russian Orthodoxy and Russian sainthood.
A significant role in the development of Russian monasticism was played by Saints Joseph of Volokolamsk (November 14, 1439 – September 9, 1515) and Nil Sorsky (1433–1508). Each had his own vision of the ideal monastic life. Joseph saw it in discipline, strict adherence to the Church typikon, and active social and missionary service. Nil, on the other hand, emphasized seclusion, solitude, and the practice of the prayer of the heart. Despite their outward differences, the monastic models proposed by Joseph and Nil represent two sides of the same coin. When harmoniously combined, both are equally pleasing to God. These two Russian ascetics left behind a valuable spiritual legacy and a rich literary heritage.
Many other ancient monastic communities in Rus’ are also well known. Among them are the Solovetsky Monastery, the Pskov-Caves Monastery, the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, Valaam, the St. George Monastery in Veliky Novgorod, the Transfiguration Monastery in Murom, and many others.