Znamenny Chant: Pages from History #
Kriuki (or znamena, “banners”) are symbols used in the Russian Church’s non-linear musical notation. They trace their origin to early Byzantine notation. Each kriuk represents one, two, three, or even more tones. There are three main systems for fixing melodies: the proper kriuk system, the popevka system, and the fita system. In the 17th century, cinnabar markings began to be placed above the kriuki to indicate pitch. At the same time, ink signs were invented to differentiate tonalities in monochrome manuscript or printed music. Kriuki are still traditionally used among the Old Believers, but in the Russian Orthodox Church, they fell out of use in the 17th–18th centuries, coinciding with the transition from znamenny chant to partesny (polyphonic) singing and to five-line staff notation.
The fundamental principles of liturgical chant were established in the earliest centuries of Christianity. Originally based on the Greek musical modes, this chant gradually diverged from secular music, acquiring distinctive characteristics of its own. The Christian Church, in its pursuit of spiritual elevation and asceticism, rejected the use of instrumental music, preserving instead the only instrument fashioned by the Creator Himself to praise Him—the human voice. As early as the dawn of Christianity, St. Clement of Alexandria called for the expulsion of chromatic melodies—commonly used in secular music to express human emotions—from church chant. The scale of the znamenny melodies is formed by a sequence of the mode’s primary steps, hence the strictness, majesty, and impassivity of the chant.
The Orthodox tradition draws a clear distinction between “singing” and “music”. This principle was adopted by the Sixth Ecumenical Council at the end of the 7th century and became deeply rooted in the Russian Orthodox consciousness. At the heart of this distinction lies a clear understanding of the fundamentally different aims of music and church singing: music is meant to provide aesthetic pleasure, while the goal of liturgical singing is to elevate the mind to God.
Renowned Christian saints understood the necessity of singing in church and took great care for its development and structure. Ignatius the God-bearer, Methodius of Patara, Ephrem the Syrian, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and many other celebrated theologians and hierarchs of their time left behind a great legacy as composers and hymnographers, organizers of church choirs, and founders of antiphonal singing. Many of their writings are devoted to clarifying the Church’s view of liturgical singing and its sacred purpose.
Through the labors of many great spiritual strugglers, the form of church singing gradually took shape—one that most closely corresponded to the spirit of Orthodox truth. In the middle of the 8th century, St. John of Damascus finalized the system of oktoechos—the division of the full cycle of church hymns into eight groups, or eight tones. The number eight holds deep symbolic meaning for Christians—it signifies the age to come, eternal and unending. Each tone is characterized by its own distinct mood, sound, and melodic turns. They express various shades of spiritual states: deep repentance, compunction, or triumphant rejoicing. Sunday troparia, stichera, and canons, written at different times by various hymnographers—and to a large extent by John himself—were gathered and arranged by him into a coherent and orderly system. This collection came to be known as the Octoechos—after the number of tones (okto meaning eight).
To carry out such a tremendous task required truly unique poetic and musical talent, as well as a genius for systematization. John of Damascus possessed all these qualities. Once a high-ranking official at the court of the caliph in Damascus, he was a deeply learned and devout man. Having withdrawn from court life, John took monastic vows at the monastery of St. Savva, where he devoted his entire life to God in the work of hymnography. He composed the wondrous service for Holy Pascha, sixty-four canons, a multitude of stichera, and compiled the Octoechos. Into it, as already mentioned, he included the finest compositions of his predecessors in the eight-tone tradition and supplemented what was lacking with his own works. He wrote the first stichera of each tone and the first troparia of each canon with musical notation (kriuki) above the text, so that these stichera and troparia (irmos melodies) served as models for chanting the ones that followed. The Octoechos quickly spread in the liturgical practice of the Eastern Church and to this day remains the foundation of Orthodox worship and a guide to the study of the eight-tone system.
In Rus’, liturgical singing began to develop alongside the adoption of Christianity and the building of the first churches, as well as the translation of liturgical books. The Greek chants took root in their own unique way on Slavic soil—they acquired greater smoothness and melodic beauty. Russian singers often, as it were, translated the Damascene melodies into the Russian musical language, preserving their fundamental outlines. In Rus’, church melodies were from ancient times remarkably soft and flowing.
Znamenny chant in Rus’ was heard not only in church, but also in the home—singing culture was widespread and beloved. Handwritten kriuk notation books were found among all layers of society—from grand princes and boyars to the lowest slaves. Grand princes sang from kriuki, as did middle and lower-ranking servicemen in the cities; common peasants, indentured laborers, and household serfs also sang, as the chronicles attest.
Znamenny chant not only took root on Russian soil—it was enriched by a multitude of new hymns composed by Russian singers. It was in Russia that the red (cinnabar) marks were introduced, precisely indicating the pitch of each znamya. From the mid-15th century, the first znamenny alphabets began to appear. Numerous schools of znamenny chant arose, and the tradition of singing was passed down from teacher to student, from one generation to another.
The melody of znamenny chant is recorded using special signs—znamena or kriuki. Hence the name of the chant: znamenny or kriukovoy. Each znamya conveys information about the number of notes, their duration, and the manner of execution. For the trained singer, the very shape of the kriuk, combined with its name, expresses its essence and indicates how it should be performed: upward-striving forms like “arrows” and “doves,” static forms called statia—whether bright, dark, or simple; the soft outline of a “comma” does not allow for forceful execution, whereas the vigorous sweep of a “hook” demands accentuation. The black kriuk lines, marked with cinnabar signs, are transformed by the singer’s voice into a marvelous melody, which emphasizes the words of the hymn and deepens its effect on the soul of the one in prayer (in liturgical singing, the word is primary, and the melody secondary). This is why in antiquity, the words “prayer” and “chant” often carried the same meaning.
In addition to the eight tones of chant, there are also various raspevs—the Demestvenny, Putevoy, Irgizsky, Kievan, and Bulgarian. The put’ and demestvo are stylistic variants of znamenny chant, giving rise to the names of the raspevs: the great and lesser Demestvenny, the Putevoy, the great Putevoy. The Demestvenny chant has its own distinctive notation; its znamena differ significantly from the standard kriuki. The names of the other raspevs—called rospevs in earlier times—most often derive from the geographical location or monastery where the chant was composed and used. Besides the various raspevs, there exists an endless number of napevki or napevy—variations in the performance of the same hymn, which in each parish or region is sung a little differently. A napevka is very rarely notated with znamena; in most cases, it exists as an oral tradition, passed down from one generation of singers to the next.
In the ancient Russian liturgical tradition, the voices of the singers are not divided into multiple parts as in polyphony, but are united, creating prayer “with one mouth and one heart.” This is why znamenny chant is characterized by a particular prayerful spirit, solidity, and detachment. The unison performance of hymns is a fundamental principle of ancient liturgical chant, eloquently expressing unity, Christian humility, and love.
Historical events in Russia in the second half of the 17th century placed the existence of ancient liturgical chant under threat: during this period, the reforms of Patriarch Nikon were carried out, leading to the tragedy of the church schism. The post-reform church came to be much more aligned in spirit and form with the Italian partes style. The modest and noble voice of znamenny chant continued to sound only among the persecuted adherents of the ancient Orthodoxy, who wholly rejected Nikon’s innovations.
The persecution of the old faith continued for nearly three centuries, sometimes easing, then resuming with renewed cruelty. Old Believer sketes and prayer houses, which were also centers of spiritual education, were periodically plundered; the Old Believers themselves suffered various forms of persecution and oppression. Old books—including liturgical chant books—were consigned to the flames. Old Believers were forbidden to establish schools and academies. To preserve their faith, and their spiritual and cultural treasures, much had to be done in secret, underground, away from the eyes of the authorities. Thus, there was never just one singing school: one destroyed in one place would often reappear in another, continuing its work and passing on priceless knowledge.
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, pressure from the authorities and the state church eased somewhat. The potential that had been accumulating for years—centuries—burst forth with tremendous force. A “revelation to the world” came in the form of public performances by the renowned Morozov Choir, which took place in the halls of the St. Petersburg and Moscow conservatories. This choir was established by A. I. Morozov at the Bogorodsko-Glukhovsky textile mill. Under the Brotherhood of the Honourable and Life-Giving Cross, a choir was active under the direction of Yakov Bogatenko. In 1909, a singing school was established in the village of Strelnikovo, in Kostroma province, which gave rise to the organization of the well-known Old Believer Strelnikov Choir. Though the surviving recordings of these choirs are of rather poor quality, they nonetheless testify to the high level of skill and cultured vocal artistry of their performers. The study of church singing was placed on a professional foundation, while the singers preserved what was most essential—Christian faith.
But this revival was not destined to last long. During the years of Soviet rule and anti-religious propaganda, persecution was raised against all believers of various confessions. Numerous churches were blown up, vast numbers of liturgical books and icons were destroyed, and Christians faced prisons and labor camps. The churches that survived were left empty. This powerful blow could not help but affect the state of chant in many Old Believer parishes; its consequences are still felt to this day.
Today, more and more people are beginning to understand the importance of preserving this unique vocal tradition—one carried through the centuries by those for whom serving God was the very meaning of life. To this end, choirs have been organized, Evenings of Sacred Hymns and spiritual concerts are held, and chant books and singing alphabets have been reprinted. The znamenny chant continues to live not only in Old Believer worship; it has also begun to attract the attention of musicologists, and some parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church are returning to ancient chant as well. The sound of these ancient hymns speaks more eloquently than anything else of the truth of Orthodoxy in its ancient, unaltered form. For the znamenny chant was refined through centuries of Christian asceticism, martyrdom, and theology; it bears the imprint of every milestone in Christian history. This singing was from the beginning intended to awaken the soul’s longing for repentance, its yearning for God—and it must not, and cannot, be consigned to oblivion.
Based on materials by Valentina Sinelnikova.