History of Old Believer Literature #
For centuries, it remained a persecuted body of literature. On the one hand, this meant that its authors were not subject to state censorship and therefore enjoyed a high degree of creative freedom; on the other hand, it also meant they had to pay a very high price for the ability to write in accordance with the voice of their conscience.
It is characteristic that most of the first-generation Old Believer authors were executed. Even in the twentieth century, many Old Believer writers and journalists faced criminal prosecution.
A second notable feature of Old Believer writing is the near-total absence of fictional narrative. The events that Old Believers wrote about and the people depicted in their narratives were all rooted in reality—or, at the very least, were understood as such. This trait carried over into Old Believer literature from early Russian literature, along with several other features. For example, one rarely finds Old Believer writings on abstract themes; much more often, authors are driven to take up the pen by the pressing “evils of the day,” even if, with the passage of time, this is not always immediately apparent.
But the chief characteristic of Old Believer literature is its Orthodox traditionalism. Like its Old Russian predecessor, the Old Believer author feels the mighty authority of Orthodox culture behind him—the holy fathers, who left to their descendants writings that serve as an unshakable shield of the faith.
That said, one must not imagine Old Believer literature as something static or frozen in time. Indeed, though preserving its traditional concerns, Old Believer literature has always lived—and still lives—with the concerns of its age. It has developed various styles and literary schools. It responds with extraordinary sensitivity to any events in the world that bear significance for the Old Believers. This responsiveness has left its mark on the genre structure of Old Believer literature, giving it a particular, in modern terms, “interactivity.” The Old Believer author has a vivid sense of his reader, addresses him, engages in conversation or polemic with him, and sometimes even assumes the authority to speak on his behalf.
The development of Russian Old Believer literature is closely linked to historical events and can be divided accordingly into several important stages.
1653–1682 #
From the beginning of Nikon’s innovations to the execution of the most prominent figures in the early history of the Old Believers and the suppression of the Streltsy uprising led by Prince Khovansky.
During this period, the foundations of Old Believer literature were laid. Foremost among its forms were the numerous petitions (called chelobitnye) addressed to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and later to his son Fyodor Alexeyevich. These sought to inform them of Nikon’s departure from ancient Orthodox customs, to open their eyes, and to beg them to “restore the former piety.” The most well-known and widely distributed petitions were those by the protopopes Avvakum, Ivan Neronov, Nikita Dobrynin, the monk Avraamy, the priest Lazar, the deacon Feodor, the monks Epiphany and Ignaty of Solovki, and Savva Romanov. Many of these individuals authored multiple letters. Several petitions to the tsar were also sent by the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery, the fifth of which is the most famous. Even in these earliest works, the results of Patriarch Nikon’s reform were collected and analyzed in detail, and the ideological defense of the old faith was set forth with solid argumentation. These texts also contain valuable testimonies from contemporaries about the methods used to implement the church reforms.
It is in these early Old Believer petitions that we first encounter the claim that the “book correction” was conducted in violation of conciliar decisions—that is, not according to the old books. A further step in the development of Old Believer literature was the transition from personal letters and petitions to the creation of literary-publicist and theological-didactic works. Through this, the Old Believer book gained wide popularity among the common people.
The most famous works of Old Believer literature from this time are the autobiographical Lives of Protopope Avvakum and his spiritual father, the monk Epiphany, written between 1672 and 1675. The Life of Protopope Avvakum is recognized as a world-class monument of Russian literature and has been translated into many foreign languages.
All of Avvakum’s writings—numbering around sixty, apart from his autobiography—may be divided into three main categories:
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Exegetical discourses;
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Petitions (chelobitnye);
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Polemical and didactic epistles addressed to individuals or groups of like-minded believers.
Among the most significant authors of this period, one should also name Deacon Feodor Ivanov, Archimandrite Spiridon (Potyomkin), Protopope Ivan Neronov, the monk Avraamy, Deacon Ignaty of Solovki, and Gerasim Firsov.
Late 17th – Mid-18th Century #
Formation of spiritual centers of the Old Faith on the peripheries of Russia. Division within the Old Believer movement and the emergence of polemical literature between Popovtsy (priestly) and Bespopovtsy (priestless) factions.
After the crushing of the Moscow zealots of piety, the destruction of the Solovetsky Monastery, and the execution of the martyrs in Pustozersk, the Old Believers were left for a time without any centers for literary and publicist activity. Christians who remained faithful to the ancient ecclesiastical order were forced to hide far from Moscow. As a result, new spiritual centers began to appear in the Russian North (Pomorye), along the Kerzhenets River, and beyond the Russian-Polish border—in Vetka.
The history of the Pomorian spiritual center—the Vyg Monastery—is a remarkable one. Far removed from any centers of civilization, there emerged an unprecedented phenomenon in Russia: a socio-cultural enclave that was, in essence, an Old Believer republic, with its own economy, administrative system, and a highly developed spiritual culture. At Vyg, under the leadership of the Denisov brothers, Andrei and Simeon, a distinctive literary school took shape.
Here, books were not only copied in the characteristic Pomorian style, and translations made from French and Latin, but original works were also composed—homilies, spiritual teachings, hagiographical and historical writings. The greatest renown of the Vyg community came through the composition of the famed Pomorian Responses—a historical-theological work defending the Old Faith, written at the demand of the Synod. In addition to the Pomorian Responses, two other well-known historical-hagiographic Old Believer works were produced on the banks of the Vyg: The History of the Fathers and Martyrs of Solovki and The Russian Vineyard.
The Kerzhenets spiritual center, which arose at the same time as Vyg, was more heavily involved in resolving internal issues within the Old Believer movement. Debates occurred there concerning epistles attributed to Protopope Avvakum and the acceptability of the practice of self-immolation, which had become widespread among certain Old Believer circles. In 1691, the monk Euphrosyn composed A Refutational Writing on the Newly-Invented Path of Self-Murderous Deaths, which essentially became one of the first public works of internal polemic within Old Belief. On the Kerzhenets (with assistance from Vyg scribes), one of the most famous Popovtsy works of the 18th century was produced—The Kerzhenets Responses by Deacon Alexander, which answered 130 questions posed by Archbishop Pitirim of Nizhny Novgorod. The author of these responses, Deacon Alexander, was later executed.
The literary activity of the Vetka spiritual center arose in connection with a developing polemic between the Vetkans and the Diakonovtsy (followers of Deacon Danila), but it was soon cut short by the destruction of the Vetka hermitages and settlements in 1735.
In general, the distinguishing features of this second period of Old Believer literature include an active polemic between representatives of different confessions, both with missionaries of the dominant confession and among themselves. Furthermore, Old Believer writings of this period show a pronounced interest in eschatological themes. The question of the Antichrist and the end of the world—first raised by Spiridon Potyomkin—occupied a central place in Old Believer literature for many years.
Mid-18th Century – First Third of the 19th Century #
A Period of Relative Government Tolerance Toward the Old Believers. Deepening Theological and Ideological Debates on the Antichrist’s Kingdom, True Priesthood, and Marriage*
It is characteristic of this period that two works appeared under the same title: The History of the Fleeing Priesthood. One was written by an Old Believer author from the Kerzhenets region, the locally venerated saint Abbot Jonah, and would later play an important role in affirming the legitimacy of the Old Believer hierarchy. The other belonged to the priestless (bespopovtsy) author Ivan Alekseev, who attempted to prove that true pious priesthood had not been preserved. A significant influence on the course of this debate about the priesthood came from the writings of the Starodub monk Nikodim, who considered it permissible for the Old Believers to receive a bishop from the official (dominant) Church. Nikodim’s writings were widely circulated in manuscript form. Later, his famous Articles were published for a broader readership in 1911.
Between 1789 and 1791, a Pomor writer—possibly Timofei Andreev, a follower of the Vyg teachers—composed a work titled The Shield of the Faith. It was directed both against the new-rite (official) Church and against the Old Believers who retained the priesthood. The work consists of responses from the priestless to 382 questions posed by the priestly Old Believers of Vetka. According to independent researchers, it is considered the finest priestless composition after the Pomor Answers.
Yet the priestless Old Believers themselves faced pressing spiritual questions due to the absence of clergy. Chief among them was the issue of marriage: Could a marriage conducted without a priest be considered valid? The married Pomors carried on a crucial internal debate with other priestless groups, defending their views on praying for a non-Orthodox tsar and the possibility of performing a lawful church marriage without clergy.
Among the writings of the priestly Old Believers from this period, a standout work is the Answers of Peshekhonov—a model of spiritual-polemical literature that has not lost its relevance even today. Ivan Peshekhonov, an icon painter from Tver, engaged in private correspondence with several priestless debaters. As a result, he compiled a book in which he gave thorough responses to the objections (vzyiskaniya) of his three most persistent opponents.
1840s–1860s #
The Restoration of the Old Believer Hierarchy. The Works of the Monk Pavel of Belaya Krinitsa, Illarion Kabanov, and Arseny Uralsky
The persecutions under Emperor Nicholas I left the Old Believer movement deeply wounded, but the acquisition of a metropolitan in 1846—Ambrose—for the Old Believer Church made it possible to restore a full ecclesiastical hierarchy. This gave new momentum to the development of the Church and, consequently, to priestly Old Believer apologetic literature. One of the key figures in securing the metropolitan’s arrival, the monk Pavel of Belaya Krinitsa, authored a popular work at the time titled Ten Letters to the Priestless, which brought a new turn to the longstanding debate.
The ideology of the priestless—expressed in the many “notebooks” that were widely disseminated—was, unfortunately, partially absorbed by some of the Belaya Krinitsa Old Believers. To affirm correct belief on various ecclesiastical issues, the episcopate of the Belaya Krinitsa hierarchy issued a Circular Epistle in 1862. Its author was Illarion Kabanov, who wrote under the pseudonym Xenos. Though entirely Orthodox in spirit and letter, the Circular Epistle caused division within the Church, yet it nevertheless contributed to the establishment of truth. Altogether, Xenos authored several dozen works.
At this time, an event occurred that proved crucial for the further development of all Old Believer literature: Archbishop Antony (Shutov) restored the Moscow episcopal see and established a literary center attached to it. This was not merely a scriptorium for copying needed books to distribute across Russia—it was an intellectual hub of Russian Old Belief. The most prominent figure in this center was Anisim Shvetsov, a young clerk serving Archbishop Antony, and the future Bishop Arseny of the Urals. In 1865, at just twenty-five years of age, he wrote his first work: A History of the Existence of the Priesthood in the Old Believer Church of Christ. Soon after, his name would take a permanent place among the foremost Old Believer spiritual writers.
Overall, while this period—due to persecution—was not abundant in authorial names and literary output, it proved to be a necessary time of preparation for the near and vigorous flourishing of Old Believer book culture.
Last Third of the 19th Century – Beginning of the 20th Century #
A Time of Mass Old Believer Literature. The Emergence of Many New Authorial Names. Active Development of the Nachetchik Movement. The Beginnings of Old Believer Periodicals.
This was, overall, a period of great flourishing for Old Believer literature, with a surge in apologetic and church-historical writings coming to the fore. Prominent and seasoned authors were active in this literary field, including:
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Bishop Arseny of the Urals, author of works such as The Truth of the Old Believer Hierarchy, Justification of the Old Believer Holy Church of Christ, A Demonstration of the Universal Validity of the Two-Finger Sign and the Errors of the New-Ritualist Greco-Russian Church Against the Holy Gospel, and The Life and Deeds of the Old Believer Archbishop Antony, among others;
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Innokenty Usov, known for On the Confession of His Grace Ambrose, Metropolitan of Belaya Krinitsa, The Church of Christ Temporarily Without a Bishop, An Analysis of the Responses to 105 Questions, On the Baptism of the Greek Church and Metropolitan Ambrose, Words and Speeches, The Means to Be Happy, and more;
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Antony of Perm, compiler of the Patristic Anthology.
In 1890, Kliment Peretrukhin wrote The Sword of the Spirit, which was secretly printed in a run of 2,000 copies and distributed to Old Believers in batches of 50–100 per province. Another well-known work of his was Peace Toward Outsiders. The writings of these authors have become classics of Old Believer literature.
It is noteworthy that during this time Old Believer publishers discovered the process of hectography—a duplication method that did not require a printing press. Manuscripts were widely reproduced on hectographs and distributed in the hundreds throughout Russia. This gave the literary process an extraordinary intensity and vibrancy.
1905–1918\ #
The “Golden Age” of Old Belief — brief but prolific. A flowering of Old Believer periodical publications.
This period of greatest freedom in the history of the Old Believer movement revealed that its creative forces had not been extinguished during the centuries of persecution. During these years, Old Believer authors were finally able to legally publish their works in books and periodicals.
A whole constellation of distinguished names appeared across various Old Believer confessions. Yet among all Old Believer writers of that time, two figures stand out:
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Bishop Mikhail (Semyonov), who, more than others, devoted his writings to Gospel themes and the moral-spiritual rebirth of the human person. In this regard, he may be best described as a spiritual writer in the truest sense. It is no coincidence that he was called the Apostle of the 20th century.
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Fedor Melnikov, a man of universal talent: catechist, apologist, journalist, and church historian. He worked in many genres and possessed remarkable productivity—often publishing several works in a single journal issue under different pseudonyms. He left behind a vast legacy whose significance is difficult to overstate.
It is impossible to list all the works written by these two authors in the scope of this article, so we shall confine ourselves to general references. Bishop Mikhail is the author of the Apology of the Old Belief and hundreds of spiritual and moral articles published both in journals and as separate editions. In addition, he wrote several works of fiction on Christian-historical themes.
F. E. Melnikov authored the brilliant study Wandering Theology, in which he vividly demonstrated the instability of the theological foundations of the New-Rite Church, as well as A History of the Old Believer Church, a vast work written by both a researcher and eyewitness, fully deserving to be called a fundamental monograph.
Among the writers of the “Golden Age,” one should also name Ivan Kirillov (The Truth of the Old Faith, The Third Rome), Dmitry Varakin (An Examination of the Examples Put Forth in Defense of the Reforms of Patriarch Nikon), Protopriest Grigory Karabinovich, and many others.
Many Old Believer writers not only defended the Old Faith through their writings but also actively participated in public debates, fending off the missionaries of the official church. The works of most authors who wrote during this period remain relevant to this day and are frequently reprinted.
1919–1988 #
The harshest and most catastrophic period of religious persecution, resulting in the near-total cessation of Old Believer publishing activity in the USSR.
Fedor Melnikov and Innokenty Usov continued to write in emigration. Within the country, Old Believer writers either ceased all creative activity or wrote for the drawer (privately), like Protopriest Fedor Morzhakov, Deacon Alexander Svistunov, and several others. On important spiritual questions, authors of this time occasionally expressed their views in private correspondence. A notable event in the spiritual life of this era was the government’s permission to publish a liturgical calendar for the year 1946.
1989 – Present #
From the beginning of Perestroika to the present day. A very slow restoration of destroyed traditions.
A defining feature of this period is the emergence within the Old Believer community of a new kind of writer—those not bound to the Old Belief by family heritage, but who embraced the Old Faith through baptism. Many of them possess higher education and professional skills, but often lack a deep knowledge of Old Believer traditions and spiritual experience. Nevertheless, the literature lives on and continues to develop, with new books being periodically published.
Of course, the above periodization does not claim to be exhaustive. It must be remembered that many authors wrote in secret, and many works have not survived to our day. A great deal of work has been done to uncover, preserve, and study these literary monuments by a number of Russian scholars—V. I. Malyshev, D. S. Likhachev, A. M. Panchenko, N. N. Pokrovsky, N. V. Ponyrko, E. M. Yukhimenko, N. Yu. Bubnov, N. S. Demkova, and others. However, a comprehensive study of Old Believer literature as an integral part of Russian spirituality has yet to be fully undertaken in the future.